MCDonalds Essay Example for Free

MCDonalds Essay Strategy and Repositioning the Brand McDonald’s in India Sameer, Sharanbir Kaur Abstract- Despite global slowdown, Indian economy is resurgent and offers fresh opportunities as well as challenges to global players. McDonald‘s still treats the Indian market as one of their young markets although what they have achieved in 15 years here, it would usually take them 25 to 30 years in another market. McDonald‘s philosophy of Quality, Service, Cleanliness and Value (QSCV) is the guiding force behind its stellar service to the customers. However there is still a huge potential in the Indian food market that remains untapped in terms of family restaurants, quick service restaurants and breakfast eateries. Coming in the wake of these, their rebranding effort requires much more than a mere change of the logo or signage. There is a need to critically evaluate the right marketing mix. The article is focused upon assessing the marketing efforts in India in terms of positioning of McDonald‘s. Index Terms- Rebranding, Repositioning, Demography, Marketing Mix I. FAST FOOD INDUSTRY IN INDIA T he Indian fast food industry has evolved over time and always has been in line with the needs of people of all ages and segments. There are enterprises which scale from one room outlet to a chain having hundreds of outlets like McDonalds in India. As per new research report ? Indian Fast Food Market Analysis? , India is blessed with one of the fastest growing fast food markets in the world. The Indian fast food market is growing at an annual growth rate of 30-35%. Almost all big fast food brands of the world have succeeded in making their presence felt in the country and most of them posting an appreciable growth. Although the market has witnessed robust growth in the past couple of years, it remains largely under penetrated and concentrated in the metropolitan cities. However, there is large room for growth in tier-II cities, tier-III cities which are mostly untapped. Therefore, the future of Indian fast food industry lies in masses that live in tier-II and tier-III cities. In 2013, the global fast food market is forecasted to have a value of $200 billion, an increase of 29. 3% and a volume of 94. 7 billion transactions, an increase of 10. 4% since 2008. The consumer spending on processed food has increased at an average rate of 7. 6 per cent annually from 2008 to 2010 and this is expected to rise at an average of around 8. 6 per cent until 2012, according to a report by Assocham. Almost all big fast food brands of the world have succeeded in making their presence felt in the country and most of them are posting appreciable growth. It is estimated through the Euromonitor International and Credit Suisse Emerging Consumer Survey, that the average Indian spends just $ 11 as compared to his Chinese counterpart who would ideally spend $ 20 on fast food. Yet , if we see the Indian spending on food in totality , they spend 23 % of their earnings on the same while the Chinese spending is 20 %. So, the inference that can be drawn is that owing to the eating pattern of Indians they prefer to eat at home and would spend on cooking ingredients over fast food. However, this does not spell good news for the industry. It is set to witness the entry of new fast food players that plan to hit the Indian market with a vengeance with international giants like Dunkin Donuts and Starbucks being amongst them. II. THE COMPETITION People prefer fast food because its cheap, easy to prepare, and heavily promoted. India is a developing country with 2 percent of organized and 98 percent of unorganized sector. So most of the fast foods that came into Indian market as India has a high growth in every sector. Major players in fast food in India are: McDonald’s KFC Pizza Hut Dominos Cafe Coffee Day Barista More than 75% of McDonalds restaurants worldwide are owned and operated by independent locals. McDonald‘s product line in India is almost similar to other burger chains with a dominant Indian flavour. Perhaps, it would be correct to say that their only similarity with their foreign outlets is that they have French Fries and still use buns. Examining the immense Indianzation they have attempted in their menu here it wouldn‘t be surprising to see Indian Chapatis in place of buns. Their current offerings reflect the same. www. ijsrp. org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 9, September 2012 ISSN 2250-3153 2 Table I : Present Menu for McDonald’s India Menu Ranges Burgers and other Bites Spicy Delights McSpicyPaneer ExtraValue Meals Chicken McNuggets Meal McAloo Tikki Happy Price Menu Breakfast Menu Favourites Sausage McMuffin with egg French Fries McAloo Tikki Happy Meal Meals Source: McDonaldsIndia. com Desserts Big Spicy Paneer Wrap Filet O Fish Meal Maharaja Mac Meal McVeggie /McChicken Meal Chicken McGrill Beverages McSwirl Iced tea/ Cold Coffee Minute Maid Pulpy Orange/ Cappucino/ Tea Soft Serve (Strawberry /Chocolate) Veg Supreme Veg Pizza McPuff Veg McMuffin Sausage McMuffin Pancakes Filet O Fish Chicken Maharaja Mac Chicken McGrill Meal McChicken/ McVeggie McVeggie Meal McFlurry McChicken meal III. BUSINESS MODEL The Business Model of McDonald‘s is a franchise-based model coupled with strong corporate branding. The focus is on the branding of McDonald‘s as a globally accepted service provider with strong customer perception about: www. ijsrp. org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 9, September 2012 ISSN 2250-3153 3 Happy Employees means Happy Customers McDonald’s Efforts of repositioning its Brand-Recently, McDonalds management has decided to change itsstrategies. They now want to provide not only a place to sit and eat but also an experience that can be enjoyed by their customers. Figure 1: The Service Marketing Triangle Zeithaml and Bitner (1996 ) McDonald‘s realized very early in their business that in order to achieve happiness amongst customers;the possible route is through happy, motivated and committed employees. In accordance with this they played on the customer first strategy. Even in India, their efforts clearly indicated that they were keen to understand the Indian consumer. Hence they adapted themselves to tickle the taste buds of their Indian customers to become a brand that enjoys a very high brandrecall. Therefore they focused on internal as well as external marketing. The level of importance has changed to be in the following order (the most important people arenow at the top). Corporate Branding The marketers are shifting the branding efforts from their product brands to a more holistic corporate branding . The reason for the shift can be traced to the belief that, it is the corporate image that carries a great impact on the buyers who are more aware and more exposed to media coverage on various issues be it environmental responsibility, being corporate social responsibility or be it responsibility towards health of future generation. McDonald‘s describe a corporate branding framework that is based on three elements: Figure 2: McDonald’s Service Pyramid Figure 3: Corporate Branding Source: Hatch and Schultz (2003)), â€Å"Bringing the Corporation into Corporate Branding†, European Journal of Marketing, The recent McDonald‘s rebranding strategy is a part of this thought and vision. McDonald‘s road to success has not always been rosy. They have been at the receiving end of the media‘s onslaught. There was a huge uproar in US after media exposure against McDonald‘s unhealthy menu that was affecting the nation and leading it to a generation suffering from obesity and heart diseases among many more ailments. There were employment issues internally which showed that they did not treat their workers well. Hence they assessed their strategies again and came up with new objectives that strengthened their previous aims and gave a new direction to them as well. www. ijsrp. org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 9, September 2012 ISSN 2250-3153 4 McDonald’s Marketing Efforts Over the Years – Proactive Rebranding – A Proactive strategy includes a new line of business or market that does not conform to the existing brand identity. When McDonald‘s once referred to itself as Mickey D‘s to target kids in a commercial, it had just coined a new way of catering to an audience separate from its traditional family audience. Objectives of McDonalds Repositioning StrategyMcDonalds, the promise of American fast food anywhere in the world, has had to rethink and reposition its brand offerings in different countries. While some basic elements like Ronald were left in place the menu underwent an overhaul. For example, in India, the menu has no beef dishes since it is not considered religiously correct to eat cow‘s meat: there is the very popular McAlooTikki, a potato-based patty in burger buns; the Big Mac is replaced by the Maharaja Mac, the Big Mac in chicken; there is also the paneer (cottage cheese) McVeggie burger. The Italian McDonalds has a special coffee spot. To celebrate its 20th anniversary in China, McDonalds rebranded under the Make Room for Happiness campaign. They had all you want coffee refills; Wi-Fi and a more modern restaurant design were unveiled. This was done exclusively for China, where McDonalds positioned itself as a place to relax away from the high demands of the average Chinese‘s life. Its Im Lovin It slogan made way for Make Room for Happiness, and McDonalds became the place where the stressed young Chinese can spend quality time rejuvenating after working for long hours. The result was an 18% increase in sales, and an increasing legion of fans that is fueling McDonalds growth in China. McDonald’s Changing Markets Changing Strategies Decades after its launch, the Big Mac is changing colours, literally. The worlds largest fast-food chain is letting go of its familiar red-and-yellow colours for more muted tones as it goes for its biggest and costliest revamp in the country, in line with its global strategy of attracting more adults. For the next generation of consumers McDonald‘s plans to cultivate a very different image from its existing one. After revamping 280 stores in various markets last year, McDonalds is now opting for the Tampa model and will spread that design to upwards of 800 locations this year — roughly triple what it did last year. The company is donning a new look when India is on its way of becoming a global hotspot for food retailers, with chains like Starbucks, Burger King planning to enter the country. Some McRemodel highlights include : †¢Redoing roofs The bright red roofs that have topped McDonalds for several decades are getting the heave, replaced with flatter, more conventional roofs. †¢Muting paint The neon yellows and reds common to the interiors and exteriors are becoming history, replaced with much more subtle oranges, reds, yellows and even greens. †¢Updating chairs Those industrial steel chairs are giving way to wooden chairs, colorful stools and, in some cases, vinylcovered chairs that resemble leather. Some stores will have larger lounge chairs similar to the kind you might expect to find in a coffee shop. †¢Doubling drive-through To ease lines inside and outside stores, many locations are adding second drive-through windows to speed up service. †¢Splashing colour McDonalds hasnt junked its familiar red and yellow colors altogether, but it is making them far less obvious. Instead of filling the restaurants with them, its splashing bright yellow and red here and there for effect. †¢Dividing dining areas The sea of tables and chairs is history in the remodelled stores. The new dining rooms are divided into separate eating zones for larger groups, eat-and-run customers and folks who want to stay and lounge. †¢Adding flat-screens TVs Large, flat-screen TVs — some playing contemporary music — are showing up in many locations, though fewer than half of the remodelled stores will display them. The new design makes the customer feel more comfortable and at leisure to enjoy their surroundings. This offers to McDonald‘s two key opportunities- firstly, to shift to another www. ijsrp. org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 9, September 2012 ISSN 2250-3153 customer base with high spending power and then to broaden their menu with offerings at a higher price point. Risks Involved When a global organization like McDonalds is going in for rebranding, a lot of financing is involved and the global impact is huge. Though the step taken by the managers of McDonalds is well calculated but speculations are on till the time it doesn‘t fair well in the market and most importantly to the customers. This kind of rebranding in the Indian Food Industry can help change the image of McDonald‘s completely like in the case of Pizza Hut, which has become a part of fine dining segment, which it was not earlier. The Indian consumer is considered to be loyal but still the risks involved are high. 1. A trade-off between what is expected from a company and what a company has to gain from the consumers One can see that one facet raises the scale while the other weighs it down making it a tough task. In order to sustain the balance, it requires big investments which will surely add to the costs incurred in the rebranding. If the rebranding falls flat, it will result in a major profit decline. 2. Store positioning McDonald‘s needs to have the most current information to determine if present outlets are cannibalizing each other‘s business. To achieve this McDonald‘s team willneed comprehensive, demographic data of India along with both theirs and competitors‘ outlets. IV. CONCLUSION The task is mammoth as McDonald‘s tries to keep up in the race for a piece of the great Indian pie . As per Forbes , McDonald‘s India operations contribute 30 % to their sales which is a considerable share. It might become imperative to create a Point of Difference to fight it out in the Indian market as all fast food brands have modelled themselves on local flavours now , the latest being KFC with its ? Streetwise‘ menu. While McDonald‘s does have the edge with its excellent supply chain and distribution network the customer ultimately does become the king with low brand loyalty in this category being the generalisation . The rebranding effort on their part seeks to bring 5 in a new flavour to their brand offering but what remains to be seen is whether they are still able to strike a chord with the customer. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to the people who assisted us in this endeavour of ours. First and foremost , we would like to thank Mr. Praveen Gupta, HOD , Lal Bahadur Shastri Institute of Management for his valuable time and support. Also, a special mention to the staff of McDonald‘s Jor Bagh, Delhi who was very patient and helpful during our visits to the outlet for the study. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Lovelock,Wirtz and Chatterjee ,? Services Marketing ? , in Plastics ,Sixth Edition ,India , Pearson , 2010 , pp. 66-98 , pp. 340-372 Aaker, D. A. (2004b), ? Leveraging the Corporate Brand? , California Management Review, 46 (3), pp. 6-18 Bijoor, H. , ? A Time to Rebuild? , Business India, February 20,2011 pp. 48. Hatch, M. J. and Schultz, ? Bringing the Corporation into Corporate Branding ? , European Journal of Marketing, 2003, 37 (7/8), pp. 1041-1064. Jacquelline, B. and Kline,S ,? From McLibel to McLettuce: Childhood, Spin and Re-branding? ,2007 , Society and Business Review, 2(1)

Discussing and comparing the Tyler model

Discussing and comparing the Tyler model In this essay I will be discussing and comparing the Tyler model and Knowles model for Adult Learners. This can be seen in section one where the comparison and contrasting of the two models will be established in order to get a better understanding. In section two I will choose one of the two models that are most appropriate for a learning context. The conclusion will consist of a summary of the key points established throughout this paper. Section One Tyler was very much linked with curriculum theory, development, educational assessment and evaluation. In education individuals regard Tyler as the father of behavioral objectives. This form of approach puts much more importance on the needs of the learner. There are similarities between Tylers and that of the andragogical model as they both relate specifically to the individuals self direction and their experience. Tyler regularly used this in learning to be a development during which an individual attains new patterns of behaviour. He had four basic questions regarding to learning: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Boone, pp.26) The previous questions are now well known in adult education. Knowledge of the psychology of learning helps set bounds on what can be learned within the given time and the current environment of the organization (Boone. Pp. 26). Tyler thought that the makeup of a schools curriculum had to relate to three main factors that together form the elements of an individuals education experience. First off would be the nature of the individual learner, which may include the individuals developmental factors, their learner interests/needs and also their life experiences. Second would involve the individuals values and aims of society, which may include values and attitudes. The last being knowledge of the subject matter. What the learner believes to be worthy and usable knowledge. In answering the four questions and in designing learning experience for students, curriculum developers had to establish judgments through the three factors. He believed that when setting educational objectives, pro grammers should take into consideration the learners, society, philosophical considerations within the institution conducting the program, the intellectual climate of society and experts in the subject (Bye Reich, pp. 181). The assumptions of this model are that all learning can be measured in terms of changing behaviours. One of the most frequently offered criticisms of programs of professional preparation by graduates who subsequently inhabit the real world of practice is that such programs are strong on theory but weak on practical application (Brookfield, pp. 201). Knowles is regarded as a central figure in US adult education in the second half of the twentieth century. The programming model is structured on his andragogical philosophy, where one assumes that adults move toward self-direction. By doing this use their experience as a learning resource, then are ready to learn in accordance with socio-developmental tasks and desire immediate application of learning. Knowles believes that the adult learner brings life experiences to learning, incorporating and complementing the cognitive abilities of Piagets adolescent. As the individual matures: his/her self-concept moves from dependency to self-direction he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experiences that becomes a resource for learning his/her learning readiness becomes increasingly oriented to the tasks of various social roles his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed knowledge application to immediate application his/her orientation to learning shifts from subject-centered to problem-centered (http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/knowles.htm ) Knowles believes that adults should have developed mature understanding of themselves, able to understand their needs, motivations, interests and goals. Individuals should be able to look at themselves objectively and maturely. They should accept themselves and respect themselves for what they are, while striving to become better. Adult learners should develop an attitude of acceptance, love, and respect toward others. This is the attitude on which all human relations depend. They must learn to distinguish between people and ideas, and to challenge ideas without threatening people. Ideally, this attitude will go beyond acceptance, love, and respect, to empathy and the sincere desire to help others. Knowles was convinced that adults learned differently to children and that this provided the basis for a distinctive field of enquiry. His earlier work on informal adult education had highlighted some elements of process and setting (http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm ). In doing t his Knowles cam to the conclusions about the shape and direction of adult education. According to Knowles andragogy model the key points are: Adults move towards self-direction Adults use experience as a learning resource Adults are ready to learn in accordance with socio developmental tasks Adults devise immediate application of learning (Bye Reich 2003, p182) The two models are very different to one another when compared. Tylers objective model requires no prior knowledge of the content being taught whilst Knowles institutional model requires some prior knowledge from the adult learner. This prior knowledge helps motivates the learning to participate more in the learning process which results to further /advances in knowledge of the topic being taught. The learner is seen as an empty vessel in Tylers model. The individual is more dependent on the teacher in learning new things within the learning environment. This is entirely opposite to Knowles model, as the learner seeks growth in knowledge. Section Two My goal in this section is to apply Tylers model with TAFEs Business Management course. Central to Tylers model is effectively organizing the learning activities. He believes in three criterias that are required in building organized learning experiences. These are continuity, sequence and integration. Business Management mirrors Tylers model by creating active learning experiences in a content area that is otherwise found boring. Having identified a number of learning activities, the teacher challenges students in active learning with writing assignments, group presentations, group quizzes, a written financial project, individual and group participation and a final exam. The process of assessment is critical to Tylers model and begins with the objectives of the educational program. The lecturer will be required to establish the point of the assessment by answering questions such as what is the purpose of this assessment, what do you want it for? With an online syllabus, students can prepare for the various methods of assessment. Mid semester evaluations provide valuable feedback on learning activities. A final evaluation of 2009 present important feedback for course revision. As a result, the following semester group learning activities were increased from 10% to 40% of the course content. Other feedback found that students desire for more review time and that the instructions progressed too quickly. Due to time limitations, the lecturer incorporated additional non-graded assignments as group presentations. By doing this the curriculum and instruction assessment helped better achieve the defined outcomes of improving critical thinking, communication and analytical skills. A final exam also helps evaluate the learning objectives and integration of knowledge. Tyler and TAFEs Business Management have comparable strategies for designing curriculum and instruction. Tyler states, Education is a process of changing the behaviour patterns of people. TAFE uses assessme nts to achieve the defined learning objectives and promotes participation from individuals through interesting activities. They both value the individual learner. Conclusion Education either functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate the integration of generations into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity to it, or it becomes the practice of freedom, the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world (Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1970) By using a combination of adult learner techniques and strategies, educators can create training experiences that will enhance the learning of participants. When an individual is put into positive learning experience that follows andragogy process that has been presented above, they are more likely to retain what they have learned and apply it in their work environment.

How to write an environmental science essay

How to write an environmental science essay Environmental science is an idiom, which has come to encompass a wide range of scientific disciplines in order to provide an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems [Coupland 1997]. Although the environment has been studied for as long as there has been science, the recent interest in putting the pieces of understanding together to study environmental systems has come alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation starting during the 1960’s and 1970’s. This has been driven by the need for a large multi-disciplined subject to analyse complex environmental problems, the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems. In order to write an environmental studies essay these disciplines need to be brought together to fully appreciate the many interactions among the physical, chemical and biological components. Environmental studies is a very diverse subject matter and essays should try to deal with the issues in relation to human activities, economics, law and social science when answering the question at hand. When writing an environmental studies essay it is important to recognise that different titles suggest fundamentally different strategic approaches to essay writing. Jones et al, 1999, outlines this point by suggesting that essays can be split between non-critical (or descriptive) essays, which are more related to the chronology or uncontested ‘facts’ of an event, and critical essays, which requires the development of an argument through the piece. When writing science-based essays it will be this approach that lends itself more readily to the subject matter. It may be helpful to distinguish between ‘weakly’ and ‘strongly’ critical approaches in order to ensure that the essay presents the complete argument, and that the arguments are well balanced [Thomson 1996]. Weakly critical writing may involve evaluating alternative points of view, especially for the soundness of their reasoning and the legitimacy of their conclusions [Jones 1999]. It may well also involve developing your own arguments, and advancing your own conclusions; and may sometimes involve making personal ‘value judgments’. Strongly critical writing involves recognised the problematic and contestable character of knowledge claims. Here the writer needs to look at the presence of underlying values and assumptions (including those embodied in competing paradigms, discourses, rationalities and ethical principles [Thomson 1996]). In this case the writing is able to show critical awareness of your own, as well as other’s arguments, and it is this style that is more appropriate when trying to balance the array of arguments, over the various disciplines, that an environmental science essay would present. The basic structure on an essay has three main components: the introduction, the body and the conclusion. Each one of these parts serves to provide form and function in the communication of clear ideas, and each has a specific role to play that, when fully realised, allows for a continuous dialogue of logic, argument and erudition. The first element to address is the introduction, a vital invitation that should capture the reader’s attention and draw focus to the title of the piece. The introduction presents the aims, scope and procedure of the essay [Bell 1993], and should outline any limits you propose to place upon your discussion, to justify the particular focus you have chosen and clarify the particular perspective or orientation the essay will take. The introduction should also seek to outline individual arguments that will follow in the main body of the essay, summarizing how each supports the argument in question. When writing any essay the writer needs to demonstrate those areas that will be looked at and the rationale behind these choices in each case. These areas or identified topics can then be discussed in more detail through the main body of the essay. The body of any environmental studies essay is where the main thrust and support for the argument should be found. As the introduction delineates the key arguments that will be raised through the essay, the main body should address each point in more detail. Each paragraph in the body of an essay has a specific function. They can generally be identified by the topic sentence, which gives purpose to the paragraph and introduces the key issue, which will be addressed within it – in this sense each paragraph is constructed around a separate idea. It is also important to try and use paragraphs as transitions from one topic to another, so that there are no intellectual breaks between points of argument and the essay flows smoothly. Without these transitions they essay would read more like an outline, bulleting points one after another. To avoid this sub-headings are used extensively in the natural and social sciences (both of which are key components of environmental studies), and is a style characterised is scientific journals, which preserves the fluidity of a piece. Figures or tables should also be used in environmental studies essays as a means to present information, which illustrates, clarifies or helps to reinforce the writer’s ideas, and should be used throughout the main body. After the body of the essay has been written, a conclusion must be drawn, which should reiterate to the reader the proven arguments and their relation to the essay title. Writing clearly and concisely through the essay will allow you to develop better scientific arguments when attempting to conclude your argument. As aforementioned, environmental studies essays can often encompass a wide variety of scientific discussions as well as more humanistic debates and the conclusion should be able to transcend each of these genres to ensure that each argument has been communicated with a consistent tone. Throughout the piece a balanced argument should be put forward, the conclusion is the writers’s opportunity to synthesise their own opinion based on the evidence put forward. REFERENCES: Bell, J (1993) Doing Your Research Project. Open University Press (2nd edition) Creme, P and Lea, MR (1997) Writing at University: A Guide for Students. Open University Press Northedge, A (1990) The Good Study Guide. Open University Press Parker, D (1994) Tackling Coursework: Assignments, Projects, Reports and Presentations (DP Publications) Thomson, A (1996) Critical Reasoning: A Practical Introduction. Routledge Jones, P, Merritt, Q and Palmer, C (1999)‘Critical thinking and interdisciplinarity in environmental higher education: the case for epistemological and values awareness’, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 23 (3), pages 349-57 Coupland, N and Coupland, J (1997) ‘Bodies, beaches and burn-times: â€Å"environmentalism† and its discursive competitors’, Discourse and Society, 8 (1), pages 7-25. Web resources: Iowa State University Environmental Science homepage.

Doctor Faustus Essays: Applying the Psychoanalytical Approach :: Doctor Faustus Essays

Applying the Psychoanalytical Approach to Dr. Faustus Within the text of Christopher Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus," a reader notices the struggle between the superego and the id. Throughout the play, Faustus struggles with himself while Lucifer and Mephistopheles struggle with him. Though these huge conflicts take place in the text they aren't the greatest of situations when one tries to apply the psychoanalytical approach. The most obvious situation arrives with the introduction of the Seven Deadly Sins. They represent the constant struggle between the id and the superego. They add to the seduction of Dr. Faustus and the constant struggle in a chaotic Hell. The id possesses most of the sins: Pride, Covetousness, Envy, Wrath, Gluttony and Lechery. All six of these sins show characteristics that are strong and powerful. Though these sound as if they were good characteristics, they are actually extremely over-bearing. When the sins explain who they are, they don't leave any room for argument. They just say who they are, and they take what they want. For example, Pride explains what he can do with a woman: "I can creep into every corner of a wench: sometimes, like periwig I sit upon her brow; next, like a necklace I hang about her neck; then, like a fan of feathers I kiss her..." (Marlowe, II.ii.120) Obviously, Pride feels powerful enough to take any woman he wants and perform with her any way he wants. With a sly and mischievous voice Pride states what he can do and no one can change it. Another great representation of the id is Lechery or lust. Lechery just walks out and struts her stuff in front of Faustus. The reader realizes that her power is not in her words but in her presence. Even Lucifer notices her strength because he sends her away almost as fast as she comes in. "Away, to hell, away! On, piper!" (Marlowe, II.ii.177) Lechery closes the deal on Faustus. Her presence is so powerful that Faustus returns to the hands of Lucifer. All six of these Seven Deadly Sins show their strength and power, for they don't back down, except to Lucifer. They do what they want and say what they please, because they are the angels of Lucifer, the most evil angel of them all. In achieving their goals they are very aggressive and Lucifer provides them all the freedom they need in order capture new souls like Faustus.

The Concept of Power in International Politics Essay -- International

The concept of power is central to the study of international politics. International politics has been defined in terms of influencing major nations in the world to advance the purpose of a nation against the opposition of other nations. Thus, it is rather not surprising that power, either by means of influence or control, has been a dominant concept that is intertwined in discussion when it comes to the study of international politics. Before getting into the fundamental nature of power in international relations, it is needed to consider just what power is. Power in the study of international politics can be derived in several ways as a goal of states or individual; as a measure of influence or control over actors, events, outcomes, and international affairs; as reflecting triumph in conflict and obtaining security; as control over capabilities and resources. Power can broadly be considered of as the ability to manipulate others to act according to our benefit, and to avert them f rom doing the same to us. Power is the creation, in and through social relations, of outcomes that characterize the ability of actors to find out their status and fate. This wide-ranging concept involves two fundamental critical dimensions: the types of social relations through which power works in relations of interaction or in social relations of constitutions and specificity of social relations through which effects are produced. The more power inclines more foreign policy choices; the lesser-known theory of "balance of power," where nations compete for dominance in a complicated chess game of military spending and diplomatic posturing. Possession of power permits both individuals and countries to successfully endorse and guard their interests con... ... Jammu and Kashmir between India and Pakistan. Stronger states such as the US waged war against weaker states such as Vietnam. Interestingly, the defeat of the United States in Vietnam and of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan indicates to a more intricate concept of power which is broader than mere financial or military strength. In fact, a lot of the current theories of international relations dispute that power as conventionally described by realists is intrinsically unclear and open to analysis based on particular state of affairs. Nevertheless, it can be successfully concluded that power is primarily associated with what a state can stop another state from doing to it and what a state can do. The ways by which power is executed may be changing, yet the fundamental nature of competing desires and interests remain predominant in defining the international relations.

Plantar Fasciitis Diagnosis And Treatments Health And Social Care Essay

Plantar fasciitis is one of the most common pes ailments. It has been estimated that it affects about one in 10 people at some clip in their life ( Crawford, Atkins, Edwards 2003 ) . Planter Fasciitis is the most occurring diseases in this modern universe. Plantar fasciitis is really common among people. Around 1 in 10 people will acquire plantar fasciitis at some clip in their life. It is most common in people between the ages of 40 to 60 old ages. However, it can happen at any age. It is twice every bit common in adult females as work forces. It is besides common in jocks. ( beginning at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.patient.co.uk/health/Plantar-Fasciitis.htm ) . Plantar fasciitis is the most common cause of infracalcaneal hurting and histories for 11 % to 15 % of all pes ailments that require professional intervention ( Buchbinder 2004 ) . It occurs in about 10 % of people who run on a regular basis. Incidence of this status peaks between the ages of 40 and 60 old ages ( Buch binder 2004 ) , ( Wearing, Smeathers, Urry et al.2006 ) . It is a bilateral ailment in about one tierce of patients ( Buchbinder 2004 ) . Plantar fasciitis is non gender specific and affects about 2 million of the American population per twelvemonth ( Irving, Cook, Menz 2006 ) . The upset is thought to be multifactorial in beginning with factors such as fleshiness, inordinate periods of weightbearing activity and decreased ankle scope of gesture normally suggested to be involved ( Riddle, Pulisic, Pidcoe, Johnson 2003 ) . A broad assortment of direction schemes have been developed to handle the upset. A systematic reappraisal ( Crawford, Thomson 2003 ) identified 26 different conservative interventions that have been recommended for the intervention of plantar heel hurting. Merely heel tablets, orthoses, steroid injections, dark splints and extracorporeal daze wave therapy have been evaluated in randomized tests. Foot orthoses are a common intervention for plantar heel hurting, neve rtheless due to the fabrication procedure, they frequently require a period of a few hebdomads between the initial audience and publishing the devices. As such, short-run interventions such as supportive taping are used to relieve symptoms during this interim period ( Martin JE, Hosch, Goforth, Murff, Lynch, Odom 2001 ) – the low-Dye ( Dye 1939 ) taping technique being one of the most often used. Foot taping, such as low-dye tape, alters the mechanical map of the pes, diminishing emphasis on the plantar facia and later bring forthing symptom alleviation ( Saxelby, Betts, Bygrave 1997 ) . Most research to day of the month has examined the mechanical effects of the tape on the lower limb. Merely one survey done by Saxelby, Betts, Bygrave in 1997 has evaluated the symptom alleviation offered by low-dye tape, but it had little Numberss of participants and did non include a control group. Those tapes which extended up the leg were known as ‘High-Dye ‘ , while those in the pes were named ‘Low-Dye ‘ . It has been used in the direction of an array of pes pathologies, particularly plantar fasciitis, and its effectivity has been discussed by several workers ( Newell1977, Miller 1977, Subotnick 1975, Van Pelt 1989 ) , although to day of the month grounds has tended to be anecdotal. Taping as an intercession or as portion of an intercession for the intervention of plantar fasciitis has been used for at least 70 old ages ( Dye 1939 ) . A systematic reappraisal measuring the efficaciousness of such intervention schemes has non been found. Therefore, it was considered relevant to reexamine the literature. The purpose of this reappraisal will be to see the effectivity of low dye taping in plantar fasciitis. Background: Harmonizing to Haung 1993, the plantar facia is the major construction that supports and maintains the arched alliance of the pes. This aponeurosis maps as a â€Å" bowstring † to keep up the longitudinal arch. Plantar fasciitis develops when insistent weight-bearing emphasis irritates and inflames the tough conjunction tissues along the underside of the pes. The plantation owner facia is a midst, hempen set of connective tissue. Its beginning is the median plantar tubercle of the calcaneum. It runs along the length of the sole of the pes like a fan, being attached at its other terminal to the base of each of the toes. It is a tough, resilient construction that has a figure of critical maps during running and walking: It stabilizes the metatarsal articulations during impact with the land. It acts as a daze absorber for the full leg. It forms the longitudinal arch of the pes and helps to raise the arch to fix it for the ‘take-off ‘ stage of the pace rhythm. The plan tar facia helps keep the complex arch system of the pes and dramas function in one ‘s balance and the assorted stages of pace. The plantar facia consists of a multilayered hempen aponeurosis ( Kwong, Kay, Voner, & A ; White, 1988 ) that originates from the median tubercle of the heelbone.The plantar facia is composed of three major sets, the sidelong, cardinal, and median. The cardinal set is the strongest and thickest. The median and sidelong sets cover the bottom of the kidnapper hallucis and kidnapper digiti minimi musculuss, severally. The fibres of the cardinal set separate into 5 faux pass near the degree of the metatarsal caputs and so attach to the proximal phalanx via the plantar home base of each metatarsophalangeal articulation ( Schepsis, Leach, & A ; Gorzyca, 1991 ) . Injury of this tissue, called as a plantar fasciitis, is one of the most hard to decide. Plantar fasciitis is a localised infl ammatory status of the plantar aponeurosis of the pes and is reported to be the most common cause of inferior heel hurting ( Schepsis, Leach, & A ; Gorzyca, 1991 ) . Plantar fasciitis represents the 4th most common hurt to the lower limb and represent 8 – 10 % of all showing hurts to athleticss clinics. Rehabilitation can be long and frustrating procedure. The usage of forestalling exercising and early acknowledgment of danger signals are critical in the turning away of this hurt. Plantar fasciitis refers to an redness of the plantar facia. The redness in the tissue consequences in some type of hurt to the plantar facia. Typically plantar fasciitis ults from repeated injury to the tissue where it attaches to the heelbone. Harmonizing to souza Plantar fasciitis by and large presents as â€Å" a crisp heel hurting that radiates along the underside of th e interior of the pes. The hurting is frequently worse when acquiring out of bed in the forenoon. Plantar fasciitis is a painful status of the subcalcaneal facet of the pes ensuing from redness or contracture of the deep facia of the sole with or without calcaneal goad. Plantar fasciitis has been used synonymously with the undermentioned footings: Painful heel syndrome Subcalcaneal bursitis Subcalcaneal hurting Runner ‘s heel Medial arch sprain Harmonizing to Baxter, Plantar fasciitis can happen in smugglers or other jocks who repetitively land on the pes. Plantar fasciitis is an overuse hurt whose incidence histories for 10 % of all running hurts ( Am J Sports Med 1991 ) . Another susceptible group is middle-aged people who spend much clip on their pess. More seldom, the facia becomes inflamed after a individual traumatic event, such as landing incorrect after a leap or running a long hill. The huge bulk ( 95 per centum ) will react to conservative attention and non necessitate surgery. Proper intervention is necessary, nevertheless, to let for continued engagement in athleticss and day-to-day activities, and to avoid chronic harm. Hazard factors: Participants in athleticss that involve some grade of running and jumping, e.g. hoops, tennis, step-aerobics, dancing. Non-athletic people who spend much of each twenty-four hours on their pess. It may look in person who all of a sudden becomes more active after a period of comparative inaction. Runing on difficult land increases the hazard, as does an addition in hill preparation. Worn out trainers increase hazard as they lose their daze soaking up belongingss. Fleshiness increases hazard. There is increased emphasis placed through the facia. Other mechanical hazard factors include level pess ( foots planus ) and holding a high arch ( foots cavus ) . Pregnancy is associated with a impermanent and physiological addition in weight. Hormones besides cause relaxation of ligaments, predisposing to level pess. There may be an association with human leukocyte antigen ( HLA ) B27 associated spondyloarthropathiesres. History: Harmonizing to Bergmann, Heel hurting with the first few stairss in the forenoon and after a period of remainder is the authoritative symptom of plantar fasciitis. The hurting improves with activity but recurs after drawn-out weight bearing, frequently at the terminal of the twenty-four hours. Normally, the hurting is felt in the forepart and underside of the heel, but as the definition of â€Å" plantar fasciitis † indicates, it can be felt in any part of the underside of the pes where the facia is located. Often, patients report that the hurting is preponderantly in the heel but radiates to the arch. If heel hurting is non present, the diagnosing of plantar fasciitis must be questioned. It is of import to find whether the patient ‘s symptoms are acute or chronic. The acute oncoming of symptoms may propose a calcaneal emphasis break, although this hurt besides may be insidious in oncoming. A history of injury could propose an acute plantar facia tear or rupture. Careful history pickings may propose a ground for the oncoming of hurting, which may include recent weight addition or unusual activity, such as get downing a walking or exercising plan or drawn-out standing. Amis and associates found that 70 % of patients who have plantar fasciitis are corpulent. Ailments of combustion and prickling in the pess or heel or both suggest tarsal tunnel syndrome, compaction of the Baxter nervus, peripheral neuropathy, or sciatica. Assorted intercessions used for plantar fasciitis: In general, plantar fasciitis is a self-limiting status. Unfortunately, the clip until declaration is frequently six to 18 months, which can take to frustration for patients and doctors. Rest was cited by 25 per centum of patients with plantar fasciitis in one survey as the intervention that worked best ( Wolgin, Cook, Mauldin, Graham 1994 ) . It is every bit of import to rectify the jobs that place persons at hazard for plantar fasciitis, such as increased sum of weight-bearing activity, increased strength of activity, difficult walking/running surfaces and worn places. Early acknowledgment and intervention normally lead to a shorter class of intervention every bit good as increased chance of success with conservative intervention steps ( Martin, Irrgang, Conti 1998, Reid 1992 ) . Assorted intervention schemes, including orthoses ( Kwong et al. 1988, Gross et Al. 1984, Goulet et Al. 2002, Lynch et Al. 1988 ) , stretching ( Probe et al. 1999, Powell et Al. 1998, DiGiovanni et Al. 2003, Chandler et Al. 1993, Barry et Al. 2002 ) , taping ( Lynch et al. 1988, Scranton et al. 1982 ) , extracorporeal daze moving ridge therapy ( Boddeker et al. 2001, Buchbinder et Al. 2002 ) , laser therapy ( Basford et al. 1998 ) and drug therapy in the signifier of systemic medicine ( Probe et al. 1999 ) , transdermal injection ( Cunnane et al. 1996, Kamel et Al. 2000, Kane et Al. 1998 ) and topical application ( Gudeman et al. 1997, Japour et Al. 1999 ) have been investigated and have shown variable clinical benefit. Taping can be done in many methods but i am more interested in low-dye tape as it is widely used and so i will be discoursing about that technique in item. LOW-DYE Tape: Low-Dye tape is designed to off-load the plantar facia. It is a short term intervention and its off-loading effects vary from patient to patient. However, as a general regulation leave the tape on for a upper limit of 3 yearss, but some might happen it needs to be replaced more often in order remain effectual. If at anytime the tape is uncomfortable, irritates, causes rubing or pins and acerate leafs it should be removed instantly. The tape required is a 1 inch Zn oxide ( stiff strapping ) , most chemist should stock it. Another topographic point to entree it is from www.simplyfeet.co.uk, look under strapping and for Leukoplast ( 2.5cm ) , its costs about ?2.70p per axial rotation ( which should last for 3-4 applications ) How to use the tape 1. The first tape is applied down the outer and interior boundary line of the pes, repetition 3-4 times. Apply adequate tenseness to avoid the tape wrinkling, it needs to be no tighter. 2. The 2nd tape is applied across the bottom of the foot-starting degree with the mortise joint, use the tape across the pes from the exterior to the interior. Over lap the each strap somewhat and maintain traveling until merely before making the ball of the pes. 3. The concluding tape is a procuring tape-apply a piece of tape across the midfoot, at about where the 2nd taping terminals, apply across the top of the pes, but do non encircle the whole pes, as this will be excessively tight. 4. Initially the tape will experience somewhat tight, but this should ease, if it feels uncomfortable at all-remove instantly. Effectss of Low-Dye tape: Offers support for the median longitudinal arch and reduces pronation ( inward peal of the pes ) . Can be used for any status affected by inordinate pronation – Plantar fasciitis, Tibialis Posterior Tendonopathy/Dysfunction, Sinus tarsi syndrome. Literature reappraisal: PF is considered a self-limiting status. However, the typical declaration clip is anyplace from 6-18 months, sometimes longer ( Young, Rutherford, Niedfeldt 2001 ) which can take to defeat on both the portion of the doctor and patient. Most experts agree that early acknowledgment and intervention of PF leads to a shorter class of intervention and greater chance of success with conservative therapies ( Singh, Angel, Bcntk, Trevino 1997 ) . Of the many intervention options available for PF. one of the most effectual is besides the most cardinal – remainder and turning away of worsening activity provides important alleviation. One survey cited remainder as the intervention that worked best for 25percent of PF patients ( Wolgin M. Cook C. Graham C, Mauldin D 1994 ) . Martin et Al. 2001 compared usage orthoses, nonprescription arch supports, and tenseness dark splints in the intervention of plantar fasciitis. Lynch et Al. compared anti-inflammatory therapy, accommodating therapy an d mechanical therapy in the intervention of plantar fasciitis. There are many conservative interventions that are employed to pull off this syndrome. Scientists at the University of Bridgeport Chiropractic College in Calgary, Alberta, conducted an thorough reappraisal of the literature from 1980 to March 2005 on the direction of plantar fasciitis. They concluded that due to legion methodological defects, none of the 15 randomised controlled tests showed once and for all which conservative intervention mode was best for plantar fasciitis ( JCCA ) . Contrast baths ‘ , in which the application of cold and heat to an injured country is alternated, are popularly believed to cut down hydrops ( tissue swelling ) and alleviate uncomfortableness following an hurt ( Sullivan and Anderson 2000 ) . Care of the Young Athlete American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. A spiller of the scientific literature on this subject utilizing Medline exposed merely two articles in this country, and one of the articles was anecdotal in nature, with no strict, controlled testing of the efficaciousness of contrast baths. The other journal article described research carried out at the University of North Carolina in which 30 topics with post-acute sprained mortise joints were assigned to either a cold ( n = 10 ) , heat ( n = 10 ) , or contrast-bath ( n = 10 ) intervention group ( ‘Comparison of Three Treatment Procedures for Minimizing Ankle Sprain Swelling ‘ , Physical Therapy, Vol 68 ( 7 ) , pp1072-1076, 1988 ) . Volumetric measurings of the topics ‘ mortise joints were made in a specially constructed armored combat vehicle, before and after intervention. An addition in the sum of hydrops was really observed with all three interventions, but cold application was associated with the least measure of swelling ; contrast baths were no better than the direct application of heat when it came to commanding swelling. This survey is slightly flawed, since there were no co ntrol persons with whom the individuals using the assorted interventions could be compared. However, the research suggests that there is nil peculiarly advantageous about contrast baths ( particularly when compared with the application of nil but cold ) in the intervention of sprained mortise joints or hydrops in general. Interestingly plenty, there besides does non look to be a individual survey in the scientific literature associating contrast baths with quicker recovery from hurt or with a important lessening in hurting associated with an hurt. Compression is thought to be utile in this stage through tape of the pes. However, while common pattern, there were no surveies found to back up or rebut this claim. But still many researches are being done on utilizing taping presents. Scherer and the Biomechanics Graduate Research Group for 1998 performed a prospective survey in which they treated 73 patients with 118 painful heels with tape, nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs, injections, and stiff orthoses ( 98 % received these orthoses ) . The survey showed that, within 6 hebdomads, about 84 % of the patients had at least 80 % alleviation of symptoms. This survey besides identified a subgroup of 43 heels ( 27patients ) that received merely mechanical therapy with taping or orthoses. Of this group, 90 % had more than 80 % alleviation of symptoms. The writer concluded that mechanical control of midtarsal articulation was the most successful intervention mode for plantar fasciitis. In the recovery stage of rehabilitation, the end is to cut down emphasis on the plantar facia ( J M. ) . Orthotic shoe inserts are thought to supply emphasis alleviation and back up the plantar facia, but a reappraisal of several surveies found them to be inconclusive and contradictory due to methodology, little survey size, or deficiency of long-run followup. There are many conservative interventions which can give better alleviation such as: Frost: Ice massage for over 15 proceedingss for three times a twenty-four hours can give better consequences and diminish the redness. Stretching Heel lifts Supportive places Weight loss Taping Orthotics: Devicess such as gum elastic heel cups, elastic heel inserts can supply alleviation for plantar fasciitis. Night splints: Splints can supply alleviate from plantar fasciitis, but it normally takes more than 12 hebdomads. In an effort to measure the effects of ‘Low-Dye ‘ taping on the pes, eight patients ( nine pess ) with plantar fasciitis were studied utilizing the pedobarograph to look into alterations in pace forms. In add-on, patients completed a questionnaire to measure symptom betterment. Significant alterations between the unfilmed and taped pes were found in regard of force per unit area degrees, countries under the force per unit area clip curves and temporal parametric quantities. The questionnaire revealed subjective betterments in symptoms in eight out of the nine pess studied ( Saxelby, Betts and Bygrave 2004 ) . This article reveals that taping technique can better pace to some extent. The best manner to forestall plantar fasciitis is to understate your hazard factors. Follow the guidelines outlined above for choosing suited and well-constructed places. Progress preparation agendas suitably and work in new environments easy. Keep your calf musculuss strong. Although plantar fasciitis is a prevalent job, small scientific grounds exists refering the most appropriate intercession ( Crawford, Atkins, Edwards 2002 ) . In the book by Rose Macdonald ( 2009 ) , named â€Å" Pocketbook of Taping Techniques By Rose Macdonald † , Functional tape is now recognised as a accomplishment which is indispensable for those involved in the intervention and rehabilitation of athleticss hurts and many other conditions such as musculus instabilities, unstable articulations and nervous control. It incorporates all the basic techniques vital to the pattern of good taping but besides includes chapters on new evidence-based processs written by experts from around the universe. To assistance in the development of these techniques, this pocketbook demonstrates many new methods which may be used as indicated or modified to accommodate the clinical state of affairs. The Key Features in the book are Structured by organic structure part with highly-illustrated descriptions of relevant taping techniques Covers all facets of functional taping New techniques to change musculus activity and proprioception based on scientific grounds. Handy, portable size for easy mention in the field The footing for a systematic reappraisal: Harmonizing to Altmann ( 1999 ) , Systematic reappraisals, in health care, have been described as supplying nonsubjective overviews of all the grounds presently available on a peculiar subject of involvement. Such overviews cover clinical tests in order to set up where effects of health care are consistent and where they may change. This is achieved through the usage of explicit, systematic methods aimed at restricting systematic mistake ( prejudice ) and cut downing the opportunity of consequence ( Higgins and Green 2006 ) . Methodology: Systematic literature reappraisals are a method of doing sense of big organic structures of information, and a agency of lending to the replies to inquiries about what works and what does not- and many other types of inquiry excessively ( Petticrew and Roberts 2006 ) . They are a method of mapping out countries of uncertainness, and placing where small or no relevant research has been done, but where new surveies are needed. Systematic reappraisals are literature reappraisals that adhere closely to a set of scientific methods that explicitly aim to restrict systematic mistake ( prejudice ) , chiefly by trying to place, appraise and synthesise all relevant surveies in order to reply a peculiar inquiry. Definition of systematic reappraisal: A reappraisal that strives to comprehensive identify, appraise, and synthesise all the relevant surveies on a given subject. Systematic reappraisals are frequently used to prove merely a individual hypothesis, or a series of related hypotheses ( Petticrew and Roberts 2006 ) . Systematic reappraisals provide information about the effectivity of intercessions by placing, measuring, and summarizing the consequences of otherwise unwieldy measures of research ( Light and Pillemer 1984, Mulrow 1994 ) . A reappraisal of the grounds on a clearly formulated inquiry that uses systematic and expressed methods to place, choose and critically measure relevant primary research, and to pull out and analyze informations from the surveies that are included in the reappraisal. Statistical methods ( meta-analysis ) may or may non be used. Systematic reappraisals are defined, harmonizing to the Cochrane coaction, as scientific literature reviews aimed at replying clearly formulated inquiries by usage of systematic and expressed methods for identifying, selecting, and critically measuring relevant research, and for roll uping and analyzing informations from the literature included in the reappraisal ( The Cochrane coaction. During a systematic reappraisal, meta-analysis may be used as a statistical tool for analyzing and summarizing the consequences of the included surveies ( Green and Higgins 2005 ) . In order to carry through this map, a systematic reappraisal should: ( I ) present a synthesis of the acquired cognition sing one peculiar clinical inquiry derived from all relevant surveies that are identifiable at one point in clip, ( two ) identify the degree of internal cogency and the subsequent possible systematic mistake hazard associated with the acquired cognition and ( three ) provide recommendations for bettering any identified defect related to internal cogency, for farther research. Owing to go on farther research, systematic reappraisals should besides supply continued updates of their synthesis Quality appraisal: The procedure of measuring the methods and consequences of each survey is frequently referred to as critical assessment, and sometimes as â€Å" measuring survey quality † . In a systematic reappraisal, this exercising aims to find whether the survey is equal for replying the inquiry. Measuring survey quality ( Petticrew and Roberts 2006 ) is frequently used as a stenography to intend â€Å" internal cogency † – that is, the extent to which a survey is free from the chief methodological prejudices ( such as choice prejudice, response prejudice, abrasion prejudice, and observer prejudice ) . Critical assessment of the methodological quality of primary surveies is an indispensable characteristic of systematic reappraisals ( Juni, Altman and Matthias 2001 ) . As a consequence this chapter will see the quality of each of the included surveies through the procedure known as quality appraisal. Any identified reappraisals should be critically appraised for quality utilizing a checklist ( Greenhalgh 1997, Oxman and Guyatt 1988 ) . In general, a good reappraisal should concentrate on chiseled inquiries and the reappraisal methodological analysis should be geared towards obtaining a valid reply. The referees should do a significant attempt to seek for all the literature relevant to the inquiry. The standard for choosing or rejecting surveies should be appropriate so that the included surveies are utile in straight turn toing the inquiry. In add-on, the methodological criterion of these surveies should be high plenty to do the proviso of a valid reply more likely. The procedure of measuring survey relevancy and quality should be unbiased, consistent and transparent. If these procedures are non good documented, assurance in the consequences and illations of a reappraisal is weakened. The reappraisal should clearly expose the consequences of all included surveies foregrounding an y similarities or differences between surveies and research the grounds for any fluctuations. In visible radiation of these consequences, and sing the populations, intercessions and results covered by the reappraisal, it should be possible to do a opinion about the pertinence and value of the reappraisal ‘s findings. Systematic Review Procedure: Scoping reappraisal: A scoping reappraisal involves a hunt of the literature to find what kinds of surveies turn toing the systematic reappraisal inquiry have been carried out, where they are published, in which databases they have been indexed, what sorts of results they have assessed, and in which populations ( Petticrew and Roberts 2006 ) . It may include restricted hunts across a limited figure of cardinal databases, limited to a certain clip period, and possibly restricted by linguistic communication. This can assist be a reappraisal for the intent of pulling up a support proposal, and can assist with gauging how long it is likely to take, and what mix of accomplishments might be needed to transport it out. From the below systematic reappraisal on effectivity of low dye taping in the direction of plantar fasciitis we can see that one relevant survey has been found which involves effectivity of taping in the direction of plantar fasciitis but that differs from the current systematic reappraisal as it did non affect low dye taping which is the cardinal factor of the undergoing reappraisal and this reappraisal is based on lone effectivity of low dye taping and non taping in broader context. Study Selection Criteria: The purpose of survey choice is to place those articles that help to reply the inquiries being addressed by the reappraisal. It is of import that this choice of articles is free from prejudices, which occur when the determination to include or except certain surveies may be affected by pre-formed sentiments ( IOxman and Stachenko 1992, Slavin 1995, Goodman 1993, Clarke and Oxman 2000, Cooper and Ribble 1989, Oxman and Guyatt 1993 ) . It is indispensable that determinations about the inclusion or exclusion of surveies are made harmonizing to predetermined written standards stated in the protocol. Both inclusion and exclusion standards should follow logically from the reappraisal inquiry. If the reappraisal aims to reply a inquiry about effectivity, the inquiry can be framed utilizing a theoretical account called PICO-Population, intercession, comparing, result ( Booth and Fry-Smith 2005 ) . The reappraisal inquiry in this systematic reappraisal will be is low dye taping effectual in the direction of plantar fasciitis? Inclusion Standards: This involves the key points which will be involved while carry oning the systematic reappraisal. Population: Patients holding plantar fasciitis. Adults age 18 and supra. Study designs: Randomised controlled tests quasi-randomised controlled tests Controlled tests Intervention: Low -dye tape. Comparisons: No intervention Orthoses Injections Medicines Ultrasound Results: Primary results: Pain alleviation. Gait betterment Secondary results: Relieve force per unit area points. Reduce swelling if present. Exclusion Standards: This include the points which will be excluded while carry oning the systematic reappraisal. Population: Patients holding other heel strivings or any abnormalcy like limb length disagreement and disablement. And patients who do non come in big age group for illustration kids. Intervention: Other types of taping similar high dye taping and many more. Results: Merely surveies that meet all of the inclusion standards and none of the exclusion standards should be included in a reappraisal. The standards should be piloted to look into that they can be faithfully interpreted and that they classify the surveies suitably. As the inclusion standards finally determine which surveies will be included in the reappraisal, it is inevitable that argument and treatment will take topographic point as to how wide or narrow these standards should be. The pertinence of the consequences of the reappraisal may be reduced when standards are narrowly defined. Identifying the Relevant Literature: The purpose of the hunt is to bring forth as comprehensive a list as possible of primary surveies, both published and unpublished, which may be suited for replying the inquiries posed in the reappraisal ( Goodman 1993, Clarke and Oxman 2000, Counsell 1999 ) . Designation of relevant surveies by a thorough, indifferent hunt scheme is important. This is because the cogency of the reappraisal findings is straight related to the fullness of the hunt used to capture the relevant surveies. The thoroughness of the literature hunt is one factor that distinguishes systematic reappraisals from traditional reappraisals. It is besides of import to guarantee that the procedure of placing surveies is as thorough and indifferent as possible ( Easterbrook 1991 ) . There are many beginnings of information to see, but a hunt of electronic databases is frequently the chief starting point. Accoridng to Dickersin ( 1990 ) , Dickersin, Min and Meinert ( 1992 ) , a scope of cultural, academic, personal and editorial factors play a function in the publication or non-publication of research. As most of the esteemed diaries use English, there may be a inclination for the publication of studies in English by research workers whose first linguistic communication is non English to be linked to the significance of survey consequences ( Egger, Zellweger-Zahner, Schneider, Junker, Lengeler, and Antes 1997 ) . It is of import to be cognizant of the scope of possible prejudices ( Egger and Smith 1998 ) , and to utilize a assortment of hunt methods ( both computerised and manual ) to guarantee as comprehensive and unbiased a hunt as possible. Generating a hunt scheme: It should be clear from the reappraisal inquiry and from the inclusion/exclusion standards what types of surveies need to be identified. Effective searching is a accomplishment and it is extremely desirable to affect an information expert who can plan and put to death sensitive ( and perchance complex ) hunt schemes. Some cardinal beginnings of published and on-going reappraisals The Cochrane Library It has three databases of published and on-going systematic reappraisals: aˆ? The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews ( CDSR ) Contains the full text of on a regular basis updated systematic reappraisals of the effects of wellness attention carried out by the Cochrane Collaboration, plus protocols for reappraisals presently in readying. aˆ? Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness ( DARE ) Critical assessments of systematic reappraisals non published in the CDSR. These reappraisals are identified by regular searching of bibliographic databases, manus searching of cardinal major medical diaries, and by scanning gray literature. ( DARE is besides available free at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd ) aˆ? Health Technology Assessment ( HTA ) Database Abstractions of completed engineering appraisals and ongoing undertakings being conducted by members of the International Network of Agencies for Health Technology Assessment ( INAHTA ) and other health care engineering bureaus. ( The database is besides available free at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd ) Selected Internet sites and indexes ( concentrating on clinical effectivity ) aˆ? TRIP – hypertext transfer protocol: //www.tripdatabase.com aˆ? Health services/technology appraisal text ( HSTAT ) – hypertext transfer protocol: //text.nlm.nih.gov/ aˆ? National Coordinating Centre for Health Technology Assessment – hypertext transfer protocol: //www.hta.nhsweb.nhs.uk/ aˆ? ARIF assessments – hypertext transfer protocol: //www.bham.ac.uk/arif/enqscomp.htm aˆ? NICE assessments – hypertext transfer protocol: //nice.org.uk/nice-web/cat.asp? c=153 aˆ? SIGN guidelines – hypertext transfer protocol: //www.show.scot.nhs.uk/sign/home.htm General databases aˆ? MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycLIT and others Research workers aˆ? Personal contact with experts in the field Research in advancement aˆ? National Research Register ( NRR ) – hypertext transfer protocol: //www.update-software.com/national/nrrframe. Html. The development of a hunt scheme is an iterative procedure: one effort will seldom bring forth the concluding scheme. Schemes are built up from: a series of test hunts ; treatments of the consequences of those hunts within the reappraisal squad ; and audience with experts in the field to guarantee that all possible relevant hunt footings are covered. Harmonizing to Petticrew and Roberts 2006, the properties of a hunt scheme can be described in footings of sensitiveness or callback ( ability to place relevant articles ) , and specificity or preciseness ( ability to except irrelevant articles ) . Searches with high sensitiveness tend to hold low specificity, in that a big proportion of articles they retrieve are non relevant to the inquiry posed. Sensitivity ( callback ) Sensitivity is the proportion of relevant articles identified by a hunt scheme expressed as a per centum of all relevant articles on a given subject. It is a step of the fullness of a hunt method, i.e. its ability to place all relevant articles on a given subject. Highly sensitive schemes tend to hold low degrees of preciseness and frailty versa. Specificity ( preciseness ) Preciseness is the proportion of relevant articles identified by a hunt scheme expressed as a per centum of all articles ( relevant and irrelevant ) identified by that method. It is a step of the ability of a hunt to except irrelevant articles. Searchs for relevant surveies can be undertaken ab initio utilizing electronic databases ( see below ) , but this alone is deficient. A thorough hunt will normally include hunts in a figure of beginnings of relevant literature. Beginnings of research grounds aˆ? Electronic bibliographic databases aˆ? Reference lists from relevant primary and reappraisal articles aˆ? Diaries, gray literature and conference proceedings aˆ? Research registries aˆ? Research workers and makers aˆ? The Internet. Constructing an effectual combination of hunt footings for seeking electronic databases requires a structured attack. One such attack involves interrupting down the reappraisal inquiry into ‘facets ‘ , such as population, intercessions, results and survey designs ( Counsell 1998 ) . The hunt term used for this systematic reappraisal were as follows: Low-dye taping Plantar fasciitis Management of plantar fasciitis Taping in Plantar fasciitis Effectiveness of taping in plantar fasciitis The group of hunt footings covering each aspect of the reappraisal inquiry should include a scope of textwords ( free text ) in the rubric and abstract of surveies every bit good as any available capable indexing footings that are assigned by the database manufacturer. The concluding hunt schemes will be developed by an iterative procedure in which groups of footings are used, possibly in several substitutions, to place the combination of footings that seems most sensitive in placing relevant surveies. This requires skilled version of hunt schemes based on a cognition of the capable country, the capable headers and the combination of ‘facets ‘ which best gaining control the subject ( Lowe and Barnett 1994 ) . One of import ‘facet ‘ of the hunt scheme can be the survey design ( s ) on which the reappraisal is concentrating, for illustration randomised controlled tests ( RCTs ) . To place published and unpublished RCTs and controlled tests, there are specialist aggregations such as the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register ( CCTR ) and research registries of ongoing tests such as Current Controlled Trials ( Current Controlled Trials Ltd. 2000 ) . Electronic databases: Electronic databases typically contain bibliographic inside informations and ( often ) abstracts of published stuff every bit good as thesaurus-derived indexing footings, which can be used to seek for relevant articles. There are many potentially utile databases and ushers to databases which can be consulted ( Lyon 1991, Armstrong 1993 ) . Some of import databases of research grounds: Medline Bibliographic records and abstracts of biomedical literature from 1966 onwards. EMBASE Records of biomedical literature from 1974 onwards. CINAHL ( Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature ) Records of literature on all facets of nursing and allied wellness subjects. PsycInfo Records of research in psychological science and related behavioural and societal scientific disciplines from 1967.Selected databases with a specific focal pointCCTR ( The Cochrane Controlled Trials Register ) Records of randomised controlled tests and controlled clinical tests in health care identified through the work of the Cochrane Collaboration including big Numberss of records from MEDLINE and EMBASE every bit good as much stuff non covered by these databases. NHS EED ( NHS Economic Evaluation Database ) Structured abstracts of economic ratings of wellness attention intercessions identified by regular searching of bibliographic databases, and manus searching of cardinal diaries. Conference Papers Index Records of conference presentations. Pedro: The physical therapy grounds database. General medical databases such as MEDLINE and EMBASE can be a helpful get downing point in developing a hunt scheme. These databases cover many of the same diaries and the extent of the convergence has been estimated to be about 34 % ( Smith, Darzins, Quinn and Heller 1992 ) .

The Impact of the End of the Cold War on Us Foreign Policy

Discuss the impact of the end of the Cold War on US foreign policy Introduction: When the world famous liberal thinker Francis Fukuyama in his masterpiece declared that we were witnessing the end of the history, he was greeting the new political structure and also the new international environment, which is peaceful[1]. However, developments that occurred after the collapse of the Soviet Union showed us that the dissolution of the Soviets was unexpected. The international society was not ready for peace and Fukuyama’s optimistic assumptions were far from becoming real. Moreover, the international society currently started to realise that the tension and the potential of mass destructive war during the Cold War era had provided a much more stable and securitize world order for any other periods of the history. Recent developments that occurred after 9/11 attacks showed us that the world is not much securer due to the characteristics of this new type of threat which is commonly known and referred as terrorism. As being the flagship of the Western powers during the Cold War, the US is facing with much more pressure than before. Post- Cold war developments proved that although the US has the leadership features and military superiority against conventional threats or in other words ‘known’ enemies, it is still lacking of showing the same attributes in the Post-cold War era. This paper is going to analyse the impact of the end of the Cold War on US foreign policy. In order to do it so, it will provide historic background information on Cold War era and also the developments occurred after. Later on this paper will focus on the shifts that occurred in the American foreign policy after the Cold War. Basics of the Cold War Policies: For almost five decades the Cold War was the main stage for the evolution of international relations. Many institutions, political or military organisations and even international norms and regulations of the Cold War are setting the base even for the modern day politics. Hence the legacy of the Cold War era is still shaping the political, economic and social relationships within, and also in between the states. Although there is no specific agreement between the historians on when it began, the Cold War is the name given to approximately 50 years long conflict between the Communist block led by Soviet Union and the Western nations led by United States of America. Cold War was a conflict, which did not include any direct military engagements between these two parties. On the other hand, it was fought by various types of means including diplomatic, economic and mostly by propaganda. In general basics of the Cold War era can be grouped under 4 categories. These are: 1) Bipolar System: The primary outcome of the Second World War probably was the emergence of two superpowers which created a new and never been before experienced system anytime in the history of international relations called bipolar system. A bipolar system includes two evenly matched powers in this case The US and the Soviet Union. Once allies during and opponents after the Second World War, these two victorious states have became the main actors of the world politics for over 50 years. 2) The US Foreign Policy of Containment: The Soviet Union and its supporters were declared as the enemy of the free world by the Western states mostly by the US during the Cold War. Although it has been argued that the first indications of hostility between these two states have emerged during The Yalta and Potsdam conferences[2], the first arguments on the soviet threat have taken place between the American decision makers in late 1940s[3]. The main idea during these arguments was focusing on the essential importance of containing the Soviets, both politically and geographically in order to save and protect the US interests in overseas. In his reply to the US Treasury Department, George Kennan a former American diplomat, mentioned the expansionist policies of the Soviets and suggested that the US should follow an active foreign policy approach in order to ‘contain’ the Soviets in its current (by late 40s) geographic borders[4]. In following years, when the Truman Doctrine came into action the idea of containment has also become one of the main strategies of the US against its opponent, the Soviets. 3) Crisis without Major Conflicts: Dissimilarity between the two blocs have produced a series of international crises during the Cold War such as the Soviets intervention in Germany/Berlin (1948), Korean War (1950-1953), Cuban Crisis (1962), Although both parties did not fight or exchange fire against each other. However, they did support the fighting groups and pick sides during these crises according to their national interests. 4) Second Strike Capability & Mutual Assured Destruction: Both superpowers of the Cold War era were also nuclear powers. They had highly effective and destructive nuclear weapons in their arsenal. Their nuclear capabilities were the main reason for the tension in the international society, during the Cold War. On the other hand, however this capability of theirs was also the reason why they were no major conflicts or military clashes between these super powers. Each party had the ability to respond to a nuclear attack with powerful nuclear retaliation against the attacking party[5]. This ability is called second-strike capability. Obviously as a result of this nuclear capacity both parties could have completely created a nuclear destruction not only for each other but also for the rest of the world as well[6]. That is why non- of the superpowers dared to attack the other one with its nuclear powers in order to eliminate the opposition, hostility, competition etc. The competition and increasing awareness on democratic rights did force the Soviets to stand back and make some major policy changes in 1980s. The Soviet Premier of the time Gorbachev tried to set some political and social reforms in the soviet society in order to ease the pressure and help Soviets to continue to survive in the international arena. Moreover, the Soviets did not only make shifts in their internal policies but also in their foreign policy understanding as well. For instance withdrawal from Afghanistan, signing of various nuclear deterrence agreements with multi parties including the US are some of the key changes that occurred in the 1980s. However, the reforms of Gorbachev did not prevent the Soviets to stop its collapse and eventually after a series of events in 1991 the Soviet Union formally announced its dissolution[7]. The First Ten Years: Although the indications were present well before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the world was not completely ready for the end of the Cold War. The US was left alone without any major balancing opponents. Furthermore, after the dissolution of the Soviets the numbers of newly established independent states have increased significantly. All these new states were lacking of self-governing capabilities and also the Western vision, which was the victorious ideology of the Cold war. Moreover, some researchers courageously support the idea that international environment during the Cold War was much more safer and less hazardous system for the global security issues. Historian Paul Dukes criticizes the former American decision makers of the Cold War for only â€Å"trying to save the day† but not working for the future[8]. He suggests that due to the lack of long-term policies of the US administrators, the world had to face with too many new issues and problems at the same time with of the Cold War[9]. If we generalize the facts before we start analysing the American foreign policy approach to the end of the Cold War, we can see that there are now much more various types of threats then it used to be. The lack of long-term policies has got the world into an uncertainty. Not only the US but also most of the states got caught out without any preparation to the circumstances of the end of the Cold War. That is way the first decade after the Cold War had a crucial importance for the US to establish, promote and also to maintain its supremacy and leadership around the world. We have seen the effects of the reforms occurred during the 1980s in the Soviet Union on the previous chapters. When these reforms combined with the ne Soviet policy of compromising have eased the tension and created a new dialogue between two superpowers. The first real challenge of the post-Cold War era was the Gulf War. Despite its historic connections in the UN Security Council meeting the Soviets (later Russian Federation) agreed to take economic sanctions against Iraq[10]. Although it seemed like the first positive international attitude towards a multi polar political system, the US policy makers misinterpreted the facts and started to crate a hegemonic power. The first real post-Cold War indication for America’s attempts to build a hegemonic power is the so-called New World Order (NWO) doctrine of the Senior Bush’s administration. The NOW came as a response from the US after the invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi military forces[11]. On September 11, 1990 former US president G. H. Bush addressed the nation prior to a joint session of Congress and underlined the ideals that the US is willing to fight for[12]. Some of the points that Bush underlined are: ? A new structure of international system based on international law and norms under the leadership of the West (particularly the US) ? International cooperation on the issues of nuclear disarmament and the promotion of collective peace ? An integrated international financial structure International cooperation on regional issues. In other words lesser sovereignty and much more international/humanitarian interventions[13]. Bush’s NWO have been criticised by various social scientists. In his 1992 article Joseph Nye categorises the NWO as a traditionally realist documentation, due to key points that was emphasised in it such as the leadership of the US [14]. Howev er, another political scientist Freedman argues that the NWO gives special importance to the UN and other multinational institutions and that is why it should be seen as a statement of liberalism and also the promotion of liberal values and norms[15]. No matter whose opinion is correct, Bush’s NWO is a fine statement of the US foreign policy makers on the Western leadership in the world politics. There is a significant increase on the numbers of US supported ‘humanitarian interventions’ since the end of the Cold War. One of the main reasons for this suitable environment for humanitarian intervention is the emergence of the newly established former communist states. Since the declaration of the NWO the US got more involved in world politics not only under the Bush administration but also under Bush’s successors. Many of these humanitarian interventions, took place under the president Clinton’s administration especially in the Balkans. In order to understand the logic of these interventions it is essential to point out the main focuses of the Clinton administration. A few weeks after he took the office President Clinton mentioned the new challenges of the post-Cold War world on a speech at the American University. These challenges and goals are: ? â€Å"To restore the American economy to good health; ? to increase the importance attached to trade and open markets for American business; to help the developing countries grow faster; ? to promote democracy in Russia and elsewhere; ? to demonstrate US leadership in the global economy[16]† The former communist states experienced series of problems during their transition periods. They not only suffered from disintegration but also they were also â€Å"forced to redefine their national interest and roles in the light of the radical c hange in the international balance of power†[17]. As a consequence of establishing a sovereign nation state, especially in the Balkans, nationalistic movements grew and tuned into violent acts. The lack of an opposing superpower helped the US to carry out the flag and start creating its global leadership. The US and its Northern Atlantic allies lunched series of military and civilian actions in order to ease the violence especially in the Balkans. During the Clinton administration US led coalition forces carried out more than 20 military missions in Yugoslavia to put an end to the ongoing violence. Main critics for the US supported missions came from a very familiar place. Although NATO eased the tension in the Balkans with its operations, the Russia was critical of the NATO operations in the Balkans. Russia prepared a resolution proposal to the UN Security Council to condemn NATO actions in Yugoslavia, though, the proposal was defeated 12-3 during the Security Council meeting, with only Russia, Namibia and China voting in favor of the resolution while NATO member countries along with the temporary members of the Security Council voted against it[18]. Hence, in general due to the sudden changes in the world politics it can be assumed that the uncertain environment and the need of a leading power led the international society to show full support on the US policies and foreign actions. Post-post Cold War? : The tragic events of the September 11, 2001did not create a new era such as post-post Cold War. However, they did assist to end a decade of positivity[19]. The attacks have generated a new era and a dimension not only for the US policies but also for the rest of the world as well specifically on the issues of global security. Although the G. W. Bush administration got the full support of international society after the attacks and even during the Afghanistan intervention, with the start of the campaign against Iraq and Saddam Hussein regime the US started to lose its supporters. The US lost its soft power over the other states and even after President Obama took the office in 2008 elections it looks like the decline will continue. Conclusion: Since the declaration of the Truman Doctrine until the collapse of the Soviet Union, the tension between two major blocks led to many crucial events, which have changed the context of the international relations and also re-framed the understanding of the world politics. The effects of these major events, which occurred during the Cold War, are traceable in contemporary world politics and also in the working structure of today's international society. On the other hand, it should be noted that no matter how important are these Cold War based policies, the collapse of the Soviet Union has brought up a new dimension to the international relations. In general the international society faced with new radical changes with the end of the Cold War. The World has seen the implementation of various types of new policy changes in both Western and Eastern blocks. For example instead of fighting with communism the US changed its role as the promoter and the fighter of the democracy and also the global security[20]. Furthermore, the former communist states focused and forced to rethink on issues of transition and liberalisation as well[21]. The US leadership started to lose its connective power within the first decade of the post 9/11 era. Unfortunately the Bush administration misread the consequences of both post-Cold War and also September 11 attacks. The administration acted much more unilaterally then its predecessor and also its successor. The support on the US supremacy/ leadership will continue to decline unless the US foreign policy makers start to interpreting correctly the current world system. The World is no longer a secure place. International cooperation and partnership is an essential element in order to fill in the vacuum that created after the Cold War. Reference List Cameron, F US Foreign Policy after the Cold War, Routledge, Second Edition, 2006 Crockatt, R ‘The end of the cold war’, in J Baylis & S Smith (eds), The Globalization of World Politics, Oxford Press, Second Edition, 2001 Dukes, P ‘A long view of the cold war’, History Today, vol. 51, issue. 1, 2006, retrieved on 20 September 2011, Evans, G & Newnham, J The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations, Penguin, 1998 Freedman, L ‘ Order and Disorder in the new world’, Foreign Affairs, Winter 1992 [22] Fukuyama, F ‘The end of history’, in G Tuthail & S Dalby(eds), The Geopolitics Reader, Routledge, Second Edition, 2006 Hass, R. N. ‘Defining U. S. foreign policy in a post cold war world’, The DISAM Journal, Fall 2002/Winter 2003 Kennan, G. F Memoirs 1925-1950, Pantheon, 1983 Kessler, B. R ‘ Bush’s new world order: The meaning behind the words’, Air Command and Staff Collage, ACSC Research Department NSW, 1997 Mingst, K Essentials of international Relations, Norton & Company, Second Edition, 2003 Nye, J. S ‘What new world order? Foreign Affairs, Spring 1992 Petherick C. J, ‘Bush announces new world financial order’, American Free Press, December 2008, retrieved on 21 September 2011, Sokoloski, H. D Getting MAD: Nuclear Mutual Assured Destruction, Its Origins and Practice, Strategic Studies Institute, November 2004 ‘T he Yalta and Potsdam conferences’, BBC UK, retrieved on 20 September 2011, ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics’, Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved on 21 September 2011, Williams, I ‘Balkan crisis report: The UN’s surprising support’, Institute for War and Peace, 19 April 1999, retrieved on 21 September 2011, ———————– 1] Fukuyama, F ‘The end of history’, in G Tuthail & S Dalby(eds), The Geopolitics Reader, Routledge, Second Edition, 2006, pp. 107 – 114 [2] ‘The Yalta and Potsdam conferences’, BBC UK, retrieved on 20 September 2011, [3] Mingst, K Essentials of international Relations, Norton & Company, Second Edition, 2003, p. 40 [4] Kennan, G. F Memoirs 1925-1950, Pantheon, 1983, p. 356 [5] Evans, G & Newnham, J The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations, Penguin, 1998, p. 487 [6] Sokoloski, H. D Getting MAD: Nuclear Mutual Assured Destruction, Its Origins and Practice, Strategic Studies Institute, November 2004, p. 5 [7] ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics’, Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved on 21 September 2011, [8] Dukes, P ‘A long view of the cold war’, History Today, vol. 51, issue. 1, 2006, retrieved on 20 September 2011, [9] ibid. [10] ibid. [11] Mingst. op. cit. , p. 54 [12] Petherick C. J, ‘Bush announces new world financial order’, American Free Press, December 2008, retrieved on 21 September 2011, [13] Kessler, B. R ‘ Bush’s new world order: The meaning behind the words’, Air Command and Staff Collage, ACSC Research Department NSW, 1997, pp. 2-4 [14] Nye, J. S ‘What new world order? ’ Foreign Affairs, Spring 1992, p. 84 [15] Freedman, L Order and Disorder in the new world’, Foreign Affairs, Winter 1992, p. 22 [16] Cameron, F US Foreign Policy after the Cold War, Routledge, Second Edition, 2006, p. 19 [17] Crockatt, R ‘The end of the cold war’, in J Baylis & S Smith (eds), The Globalization of World Politics, Oxford Press, Second Edition, 2001, p. 93 [18] Williams, I ‘Balkan crisis report: The UN’s surprising support’, Institute for War and Peace, 19 April 1999, retrieved on 21 September 2011, [19] Hass, R. N. ‘Defining U. S. foreign policy in a post cold war world’, The DISAM Journal, Fall 2002/Winter 2003, p. 31 [20] Crockatt, op. cit. p. 93 [21] ibid.